The State of Sequoyah: Indigenous Sovereignty and the Quest for an Indian State, by Donald L. Fixico, College of Oklahoma Press, 206 pages, $34.95
In McGirt v. Oklahoma (2020), the Supreme Court docket rejected Oklahoma’s try to prosecute crimes dedicated on a reservation by an Indian. Henceforth, the tribe, not the state, would have jurisdiction over Indian crimes on Indian lands. It was such a win for Indian sovereignty that the Muscogee have dubbed July 9, the day the choice got here down, as Sovereignty Day.
If historical past had taken a special flip, the place now often known as Oklahoma might have seen a fair stronger win for Native American sovereignty. That space was as soon as often known as Indian Territory: a land the place tribes displaced from different components of the U.S. had been resettled. In 1890, part of it was carved out to type the Oklahoma Territory, however a big portion of what’s now the state of Oklahoma remained in Indigenous palms. Even because the Oklahoma Territory utilized for statehood, so did the Indian zone. On November 7, 1905, delegates from the 5 Tribes—the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Muscogee, and Seminole—met in Muskogee, Oklahoma, on the Hinton Theater. They voted overwhelmingly to help a structure for a proposed state of Sequoyah, named for the Indian who was the primary to jot down down the Cherokee language.
They misplaced that combat: When Oklahoma was admitted to the Union in 1907, the Indian and Oklahoma territories had been consolidated right into a single state. However in The State of Sequoyah, which relates the historical past of that battle and of the bigger concept of an Indian state, the Arizona State College coverage historian and ethnohistorian Donald L. Fixico makes a case for the continued relevance of such concepts. “If the District of Columbia or Puerto Rico are doable candidates for statehood, then so must be the state of Sequoyah,” he argues.
The 5 Tribes weren’t truly “tribes” within the sense that most individuals use the phrase at this time: They consisted of autonomous townlike communities, every with their very own histories and their very own programs of property and governance. Within the a long time that adopted their removing from the East, the 5 Tribes revised their conventional infrastructures, adopted constitutions, and, in Fixico’s phrases, “started endowing a central, collective sovereignty.”
Fixico demonstrates how deeply ingrained the thought of an Indian state is within the historical past of Indian-white relations. The idea itself goes again at the very least so far as the Treaty of Fort Pitt, signed on September 17, 1778, which promised the Delaware Indians a suggestion “to hitch the current confederation, and to type a state whereof the Delaware nation shall be the pinnacle, and have a consultant of Congress.” For sure, this was not how we obtained the state of Delaware. The brand new nation’s first treaty with an Indian nation was, thus, additionally the primary to be damaged.
Secession offered one other alternative. The Confederacy promised Indian Territory statehood in alternate for help, and lots of Native nations offered troopers to the Accomplice trigger. That path to an Indian state disappeared when the South misplaced the battle.
Throughout Reconstruction, the federal authorities pressured the 5 Tribes to unify right into a single construction, although every retained a level of autonomy and every despatched delegates to the conference for statehood. The Reconstruction-era authorities additionally trampled tribal sovereignty by asserting federal authority over all main crimes, despite the fact that the 5 Tribes had their very own courts and their very own police. After Reconstruction, the Dawes Act of 1887 broke up the tribes’ landholdings and imposed a system of individually held property whether or not or not the Indians concerned needed it. (In follow, this was used to release land for white settlers.) The Curtis Act of 1898 continued the reorganization of Native property rights and likewise abolished the 5 Nations’ tribal courts.
On the finish of the nineteenth century, the federal government repeatedly and frequently opened extra land for settlement within the space that’s now Oklahoma. The land rushes of 1889 and 1891 collectively opened greater than 2 million acres of land for settlement. In 1893, 100,000 folks participated within the greatest land run in American historical past: the Cherokee Outlet Run.
The land rush included not simply whites however round 3,000 African Individuals. Many of those new arrivals supplied one more political imaginative and prescient: a black state in Indian Territory. Oklahoma golf equipment in Kansas hoped to ascertain black homesteads and all-black cities. Many of those migrants had been former slaves of masters from the 5 Nations. A few of them needed to choose the Unappropriated Lands in Indian Territory—that’s, these lands inside Indian Territory that weren’t settled by Indians.
Some Indians resisted black settlers, needed freedmen faraway from their reservations, and had their governments formally forbid intermarriage with African Individuals. Oklahoma Territory legislators tried to drive out black settlers too and adopted segregationist insurance policies. They actually weren’t prepared to make room for a black state.
The dream of an Indian state died as effectively: President Teddy Roosevelt determined it was in opposition to “Republican coverage” to type two states from the area, and the only state of Oklahoma was admitted as a substitute. (Republican coverage are the phrases the Indian delegates who met with Roosevelt used to explain his stance. It isn’t clear what coverage the president was referring to.)
It’s arduous to say on reflection how shut Indians had been to securing their very own state, although Fixico exhibits there was a considerable consensus throughout the tribes in favor of forming one. If Roosevelt had been extra supportive, or if “Republican coverage” had allowed it, there might have been a possibility for Congress to think about the thought. However the lack of help from the highest of the Republican administration appears to have doomed the proposal.
Within the wake of that failed combat, there can be many extra reminders of why so many Natives needed a state of their very own. Indians continued to face pressured assimilation into the white American mainstream, and after World Battle II the federal authorities tried to get rid of tribal sovereignty outright—a time often known as the Termination Period, as a result of Washington explicitly aimed to assimilate tribal governance into the state and federal governments. Not till the Sixties did President John F. Kennedy begin placing the brakes on termination, and never till the Nineteen Seventies did self-determination change into nationwide coverage.
Even after that, Congress asserts powers over Indian nation that it doesn’t declare over the states, corresponding to authority over main crimes. Even after McGirt, the Supreme Court docket has but to reject the notion that Indians are a “home dependent” nation. Paternalism continues to be the overarching precept: Most reservation land is held in perpetual federal belief.
Would an Indian state provide extra autonomy? As James Madison argued in Federalist No. 45, the powers reserved to the states are “quite a few and indefinite.” Tribal sovereignty is extra circumscribed and restricted. An Indian state would maybe provide higher autonomy for Native Individuals than the present reservation system.
Fixico doesn’t discover what an “Indian state” would appear like at this time. Sequoyah would have occupied a particular contiguous space, with particular emphasis on the 5 Tribes. What an Indian state could possibly be at this time, provided that there are 574 federally acknowledged tribal entities, isn’t clear, however that doesn’t appear to be the purpose. The purpose is that if a group of Indian folks needed to unify and suggest a state, or another various to the present reservation system that will align with the traditional system of American states, it should not be thought of outdoors the realm of risk. The e book doesn’t purpose to advance any particular proposal; it desires to acknowledge that that is an choice to take significantly, if Native nations themselves are excited about it.
For these excited about selling liberty and autonomy, and in righting the historic wrongs attributable to authorities overreach, such a state could possibly be an inexpensive strategy to promote political freedom. Studying Fixico’s scholarship and considering of these 50 stars on the American flag, I could not assist asking: Why not a number of extra?
