Within the mid-Sixties, the Nobel Prize–successful physicist Luis Alvarez had a wild thought. He proposed utilizing muons, extremely penetrating subatomic particles created when cosmic rays strike Earth’s environment, to seek for hidden chambers inside one of many pyramids of Giza.
These muon particles are heavyweight cousins of electrons that journey near the velocity of sunshine. They will penetrate by way of many meters of strong rock, together with the limestone and granite blocks used to construct the pyramids. However a few of the muons can be absorbed by this dense materials, that means that they can be utilized to primarily “X-ray” a pyramid, revealing its internal construction. So in 1968, Alvarez and his colleagues started making muon measurements from a chamber positioned on the base of the Pyramid of Khafre.
They didn’t discover a hidden chamber, however they did affirm the feasibility of what has come to be known as muon tomography. Physicists have since used the method to find hidden entry shafts above tunnels, examine magma chambers inside volcanos, and even probe the broken reactors at Fukushima. And, in 2017, muon measurements lastly revealed a hidden chamber in one of many pyramids of Giza—simply not the pyramid that Alvarez had chosen to discover.
You can also carry out comparable experiments with tools that you may construct your self for under US $100 or so.
Whereas some well-documented designs can be found for low-cost muon detectors (particularly, the Cosmic Watch mission from MIT), I made a decision to pursue an easier—and barely cheaper—method. I bought two Geiger-counter kits, every costing solely $23. Though it’s known as a “package,” this board the truth is comes absolutely assembled minus the important thing part: a Geiger-Müller (or GM) tube for detecting ionizing radiation. It additionally comes with no documentation.
The dearth of documentation wasn’t an issue as soon as I discovered a great supply for details about this board—together with a pointer to beneficial directions for the right way to set the tube’s anode voltage.
The muon detector makes use of two Geiger-Müller tubes [top], every inserted right into a sensor board [bottom right]. Each boards are related to an Arduino Nano microcontroller [bottom left].James Provost
For the GM tubes, I made a decision to purchase what I understood to be good ones: Russian-made SBM-20 tubes. Many of those are listed on eBay by sellers in Ukraine, however I used to be in a position to get hold of a pair of such tubes from a provider within the United States for simply $49.
“Why two kits and two tubes?” you may ask. It’s as a result of GM tubes don’t react simply to muons. More often than not, they’re triggered by ionizing particles given off by radioactive substances within the surroundings, such because the daughter merchandise of radon within the air.
Proving that the outcomes mirrored the flux of cosmic-ray muons wasn’t troublesome.
To differentiate the high-energy cosmic-ray muons from the opposite, lower-energy particles isn’t exhausting, although. Simply apply what physicists name the coincidence methodology: Detect solely when two close by tubes are triggered virtually concurrently, that means one particle has barreled by way of each tubes. The 2 tubes in my machine are separated by 25-millimeter spacers, making it unlikely {that a} particle coming from a close-by radioactive decay can be energetic sufficient to cross by way of each tubes. I lowered the probability much more by inserting a layer of fishing-sinker lead between the tubes.
To show the stacked pair of GM counters right into a coincidence detector, I attached the output of every board (oddly labeled VIN, which often means a pin for a voltage provide enter!) to a spare Arduino Nano, programmed to document successful solely when one board registers a depend inside 1 millisecond of the opposite. Naturally this implies the detector can acknowledge solely muons with trajectories roughly aligned with the aircraft of the GM tubes in order that the muons cross by way of each tubes.
Geiger-Müller tubes are activated by ionizing radiation, however not like cosmic-ray muons [red particles], most terrestrial sources [green particles] should not highly effective sufficient to journey by way of the detector’s two tubes. By registering solely activations that happen nearly concurrently, we are able to plot the muon flux as a operate of the angle from vertical of the detector, with the noticed knowledge following the expected mannequin intentlyJames Provost
Proving to myself that the outcomes certainly mirrored the flux of cosmic-ray muons wasn’t troublesome: I simply measured the depend fee as a operate of how distant from vertical my detector was oriented. You see, the flux of cosmic-ray muons coming in vertically from the sky is bigger than the flux of muons touring horizontally. Between these extremes, the flux ought to have a cosine-squared dependence on the angle because the detector’s aircraft rotates from vertical to horizontal.
So I set about counting occasions with my machine oriented at totally different angles from vertical, permitting not less than 12 hours for every measurement. The outcomes had been fairly per the anticipated cosine-squared variation. For instance, when utterly horizontal, the detector registered a worth that was lower than 10 p.c of that obtained when vertical, but it surely wasn’t zero.
Getting nonzero muon counts even when horizontal isn’t so shocking. With solely a 2.5-centimeter separation between the 2 1-cm-diameter tubes, my detector’s angular decision is fairly broad (±22 levels). So even after I set the unit to sense horizontal flux, it was absolutely detecting muons coming in from as a lot as 22 levels above the horizon.
With a working muon detector in hand, I set off to probe the Earth—or not less than a small a part of it—by visiting the Reed Gold Mine, in Midland, N.C., the primary business gold mine in america. I spent about two and a half hours within the mine, making 5 30-minute measurements. I simply detected the more and more thick layer of rock above the mine’s primary horizontal tunnel. My detector was even in a position to sense the presence of a vertical shaft at one spot, because the absence of rock allowed extra muons to achieve me than I measured close by within the tunnel.
These measurements take a very long time as a result of you want to accumulate sufficient counts to supply cheap statistical precision. So that you’ll want persistence. But it surely’s not a nasty solution to harness the facility of the cosmos, even deep underground!
